What can be seen from the material presented in this article is that citizenship for Kenyan Somalis is ambiguous in multiple ways: they are treated as not fitting racially and culturally (which is partly due to their own separation), they are seen as not really wanting to belong (on the grounds of the shifta war and terrorism), as being an economic and political threat, and as not bound enough to Kenya due to their cross-border ties. )percent of population: 29% (2021 est. Unlike Abdullahi, who always insisted on remaining in Kenya, both of his brothers now live in Europe. Government commitment and international technical support spurred Kenyan contraceptive use, decreasing the fertility rate (children per woman) from about 8 in the late 1970s to less than 5 children twenty years later, but it has plateaued at about 3 children as of 2022. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 265. Meeting Kenyan Somalis from the northeastern part of the country, where Somali is spoken more frequently, can lead to a feeling of double exclusion: to be neither accepted as Somali nor to be able to claim belonging to any other Kenyan ethnic group. 31. Letter of the chief secretary Turnbull to the Secretary of the East African Ishakia Association, July 1955; ADM 15/1/14/87A (Kenya National Archives, Nakuru). Abdhullahi, in contrast, mostly stayed away from other Somalis, with the exception of business endeavours. The heterogeneous Somali population in Kenya can roughly be categorized into four groups. Abdullahi left Nakuru immediately after recovering and started a new life in Nairobi. Register to receive personalised research and resources by email. (English)The World Factbook, Chanzo cha Lazima Kuhusu Habari ya Msingi. 40. Carrier and Kochore, Navigating Ethnicity, 144. In 2013 it was merged with the Ministry of Devolution and Planning. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 253. Amina, a young woman in her early 20s, was born in Nakuru. In addition, the Security Laws (Amendment) Act was passed in 2014. Meanwhile, the situation in neighbouring Somalia worsened, starting with the Ogaden war (1977-1978). This means: at an individual level, an Ogaden from there might feel the urge or need or might be compelled . Anderson, Remembering Wagalla, 662663. Almost 40% of Kenyans are under the age of 15 as of 2020 because of sustained high fertility, early marriage and childbearing, and an unmet need for family planning. ), total petroleum production: 0 bbl/day (2021 est. 33. Mzee Jamal, an old Somali man in Nakuru, told me: They had no place for Somalis in Kenya. During the screening of Kenyans of Somali descent in 1989, those considered as belonging to an indigenous lineage were issued pink screening cards.Footnote25 All others were effectively declared non-citizens, losing everything linked to Kenyan citizenship status (such as property).Footnote26 Kenyan Somalis were, as during the Wagalla massacre,Footnote27 on both sides of this event in both cases a small Somali political elite used the events to weaken their economic and political rivals.Footnote28 Even though not all Kenyan Somalis were registered, the pink screening card would be a requirement for obtaining an ID years later. N. Rugene and D. Kalinaki, Abdul Hajis Mission to Rescue Brother Blessing for Westgate Hostages. Daily Nation, 25 September 2013. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/How-Abdul-Haji-rescued-Westgate-hostages/1056-2007316-5ol57g/index.html. The government was unable to respond adequately to the attacks. 72. For the next two centuries Abyssinia defined the limits . Walaal means sister or brother in Somali and is, similar to warya, a reminder of difference. Ogaden's recent history is also clouded by conflict that has killed thousands. During the Wagalla massacre in 1984, for instance, between 1,000 and 5,000 Somalis were killed by security personnel, demonstrating a continuity of military and state policy towards the north.Footnote23 Yet despite the violence of the Kenyan state in the northeastern region, Lewis could write in the late 1980s The large Somali community in Northern Kenyatends tobe quite firmly integrated into Kenya.Footnote24. New Modes in the Struggle Over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe, The Fourth Point: An Examination of the Influence of Kenyan Somalis in Somalia, Decentralisation in Kenya: The Governance of Governors, Planning, Property and Plots At the Gateway to Kenyas New Frontier, Somalia Rising: Things are Starting to Change for the Worlds Longest Failed State, The Checkered History of the Somali in Kenya. As a result, this area remained separated from the rest of Kenya and was ruled under emergency regulations. )from consumed natural gas: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est. Population and demographic of Mandera County: Garissa counry is 620,000 whereas Wajeer county is 660,000. Did you know that with a free Taylor & Francis Online account you can gain access to the following benefits? According to Human Rights . Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission (IEBC). 65. For Somalians, Kenyan Somalis are Somali sijui, Somali who do not know (neither Somali language nor culture), brothers and sisters, but not real Somalis. Ceded to Ethiopia by the British in 1954, Ogaden has twice been fought over with Somalia, which claims the region . Eastern Africa, bordering the Indian Ocean, between Somalia and Tanzania, total: 580,367 sq kmland: 569,140 sq kmwater: 11,227 sq km, five times the size of Ohio; slightly more than twice the size of Nevada, total: 3,457 kmborder countries (5): Ethiopia 867 km; Somalia 684 km; South Sudan 317 km; Tanzania 775 km; Uganda 814 km, territorial sea: 12 nmexclusive economic zone: 200 nmcontinental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation, varies from tropical along coast to arid in interior, low plains rise to central highlands bisected by Great Rift Valley; fertile plateau in west, highest point: Mount Kenya 5,199 mlowest point: Indian Ocean 0 mmean elevation: 762 m, limestone, soda ash, salt, gemstones, fluorspar, zinc, diatomite, gypsum, wildlife, hydropower, agricultural land: 48.1% (2018 est. We are one Kenya: Representations of the Nation, Leadership, and de-Ethnicized Identity on Reality TV, The Isaq Somali Diaspora and Poll-Tax Agitation in Kenya, 193641, The Unaccountable Census: Colonial Enumeration and Its Implications for the Somali People of Kenya, A New Model Village. These Highlands are unique in that their elevation does not gradually increase, but rather shoots straight up immediately from the flat land below. the song Narudi nyumbani/coming home by Nameless, written in 2010 as a tribute to Kenyan sportspeople who represent (their) nation), advertisements (such as Niko na Safaricom/I have Safaricom, a mobile network operator in Kenya) and TV shows.Footnote43 Furthermore, the idea was at the core of civil society initiatives. )imports: 277 million kWh (2019 est. During the 2011 drought in the northern regions of the country, for instance, there was a wave of solidarity with people donating to campaigns such as Kenyans for Kenya. )3.09% of GDP (2020 est. 78. The only exception from this pattern in Nakuru was a Muslim youth group in which Amina was participating: its all-Somali members, who had met in school, came from Somalia as well as from Kenya (and here from the urban areas as well as from the northeastern part of the country). My thanks go to James Carrier, David OKane, John Eidson and Keren Weitzberg for their fruitful comments and to Fatma A. Hassan for her help during fieldwork in Kenya. This argument was already raised in 1974 during a discussion about the motion Compulsary birth registration for Isiolo and Marsabit Somali (Hansard, Parliamentary Debates, May 17, 1974, p. 1408). 30. The Christians retreated into what may be called Abyssinia, an easily defensible, socially cohesive unit that included mostly Christian, Semitic-speaking peoples in a territory comprising most of Eritrea, Tigray, and Gonder and parts of Gojam, Shewa, and Welo. Ethnicity is a highly relevant category for political discussions and practices in Kenya, not only during elections, but also, for example, for the allocation of positions in the public sector. The Nubians of Kibera Revisited: Detribalized Natives, Slum Dwellers, Middle Class? See Whittaker, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency. The region has an estimated population of about 4.5 million. around Kismayo) are much more exposed to Al Shabaab than the others. The situation of an Ogaden born in Kenya is very different from the one of an Ogaden born in Kismayo from one born in Region 5. Many urbanized Somalis did not see their future in Kenya and moved to Europe in the 1990s and 2000s. ), total: 26.94 deaths/1,000 live birthsmale: 29.94 deaths/1,000 live birthsfemale: 23.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2023 est. )biomass and waste: 1.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est. Together, these attacks claimed over 400 lives.Footnote68 The attackers persistently targeted non-Muslims, and claimed that they were reacting to non-Muslim occupation of Muslim territory. )on alcohol and tobacco: 4.1% of household expenditures (2018 est. )-0.25% (2020 est. [9] History [ edit] Pre-colonial era [ edit] which may lead them to rule in a biased way against women and girls. Instead, a de jure count was undertaken, followed by sampling. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 617. This paper is based on research into the interlinkages of different groups of ethnic Somalis in Kenyan urban centres, using the example of Nakuru, the fourth biggest city of Kenya (and to some extent Nairobi and Mombasa). Changes in identification over time are also indicated by the Afrobarometer data concerning ethnic versus national identification. Some perceive Somalis as doing better than other Muslims in Kenya, economically and politically.Footnote41. 105. 10. )geothermal: 46.2% of total installed capacity (2020 est. 100. I argue that many Kenyan Somalis are ready to take this possibility up, if they have the chance to do so. Following McIntoshs contention that one way to claim Kenyanness is to appeal to a civic nationalism, in which all groups invested in the nation are equally welcome, this article argues based on ethnographic data gathered since 2010 as well as archival sources that many Kenyan Somalis are ready to take this possibility up, if they have the chance to do so. In the third part of the paper, I discuss how the two dimensions important for the notion of Kenyanness race and cultural citizenship play out for the Somali citizens of the state. )nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est. In the last decade, the government has slowly become more attentive to this region, for instance by the establishment of a Ministry of Northern Kenya and other Arid Areas in 2008.Footnote35 In addition, in 2009, the LAPSSET (Lamu Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia Transport) project was announced, aiming at the creation of a infrastructure network linking the northern regions to central Kenya and therefore ideally becoming a means through which northerners could be drawn into the nation proper.Footnote36, The immigration of Somalian refugees enabled more contacts between Kenyan Somalis and Somalians, yet it also led Kenyan Somalis to realign questions of Kenyanness and belonging. Nairobi Development and the Somali Question in Kenya, c. 191517. Registered in England & Wales No. Collective punishment, however, persisted in the North Eastern Province. Throughout the paper the term Somali is used when referring to the ethnic category, the term Somalian as a national category denotes people coming from Somalia. McIntosh, Autochthony and Family, 265. Recommended articles lists articles that we recommend and is powered by our AI driven recommendation engine. Those who reside in southern Somalia (e.g. )refined petroleum consumption: 116,400 bbl/day (2019 est. 4.5% vs 7.1% 33.22million larger labor force? At the same time Kenyan Somalis complained about being overrun by the Rer [reer, Somali for clan or group] Somalia.Footnote37, In the cities outside of the northeastern region, the situation for the Somali population likewise changed from the 1990s onwards. ), general assessment: Kenyas telecom market continues to undergo considerable changes in the wake of increased competition, improved international connectivity, and rapid developments in the mobile market; the country is directly connected to a number of submarine cables, and with Mombasa through a terrestrial network, the country serves as a key junction for onward connectivity to the Arabian states and the Far East; numerous competitors are rolling out national and metropolitan backbone networks and wireless access networks to deliver services to population centers across the country; several fiber infrastructure sharing agreements have been forged, and as a result the number of fiber broadband connections has increased sharply in recent years; much of the progress in the broadband segment is due to the governments revised national broadband strategy, which has been updated with goals through to 2030, and which are largely dependent on mobile broadband platforms based on LTE and 5G (2022)domestic: fixed-line subscriptions stand at less than 1 per 100 persons; mobile-cellular subscriptions at 123 per 100 persons (2021)international: country code - 254; landing point for the EASSy, TEAMS, LION2, DARE1, PEACE Cable, and SEACOM fiber-optic submarine cable systems covering East, Northand South Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and Asia; satellite earth stations - 4 Intelsat; launched first micro satellites in 2018 (2019), about a half-dozen large-scale privately owned media companies with TV and radio stations, as well as a state-owned TV broadcaster, provide service nationwide; satellite and cable TV subscription services available; state-owned radio broadcaster operates 2 national radio channels and provides regional and local radio services in multiple languages; many private radio stations broadcast on a national level along with over 100 private and non-profit regional stations broadcasting in local languages; TV transmissions of all major international broadcasters available, mostly via paid subscriptions; direct radio frequency modulation transmissions available for several foreign government-owned broadcasters (2019), total: 15.37 million (2021 est. 62. Last but not least the term ambiguous citizenship encapsulates different dimensions of citizenship while people can be treated as belonging in some of them, they are not necessarily categorized as citizens in others. Since Kenyas independence in 1963, the question of how to incorporate the heterogenous parts of its society has been a vital issue. In the late 19th century the Ogaden was claimed by both Ethiopia and the Italian protectorate of Somaliland. )hydroelectricity: 32.6% of total installed capacity (2020 est. Even though other communities, such as Maasai, Kalenjin, or Luo likewise spread over national borders, Kenyan Somali Members of Parliament lamented repeatedly that Kenya treats its Somali citizens differently than those other groups.Footnote90 The notion of pastoralism can, however, also serve as a binding element, as the elections 2013 showed. Typically, the concrete emergence of stubborn informalities is handled [] by a range of delegitimizing and criminalizing discourses. [1] Among these individuals are a number of ethnically Somali international migrants, around 300,000 of whom inhabit the wider East and South Africa regions. )agricultural: 3.23 billion cubic meters (2020 est. Trade centers such as Mombasa have existed along the Kenyan and Tanzanian coastlines, known as the Land of Zanj, since at least the 2nd century. The movement of people from Somalia to . There are (limited) interlinkages between these groups, and there are many who do not fit into these artificially drawn categories. This paper deals with the first two categories, Kenyan Somalis who have a well-founded claim to Kenyan citizenship. Lochery, Rendering Difference Visible, 617. ), production: 0 cubic meters (2021 est. P. Leftie and J. Otieno, How North Eastern Figures Went Wrong, Daily Nation, 1 September 2010. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/How-North-Eastern-figures-went-wrong-/1056-1001530-1d3tow/index.html. the report brings us up to date on a 20 year-old insurgency waged by some Ogadeeni members of the larger ethnic Somali population in parts of the Ogaden region, which stretches across south-eastern Ethiopia and the borders of Kenya and the Somali territories. Echoes of nationhood in the Silent Room, 24 January 2016. http://www.nation.co.ke/lifestyle/lifestyle/Echoes-of-nationhood-in-the-Silent-Room/1214-3046604-shee9bz/index.html. 6. ), $29.289 billion (2019 est. Yuval-Davis, Intersectionality, Citizenship, 563. Hassan mentioned Islam as the main element linking ethnic Somalis from Kenya and Somalia. 39. According to Human Rights Watch in 2008, the Ogaden is the largest Darod clan in Ethiopia's Somali Region, and may account for 40 to 50 percent of the Somali population in Ethiopia. KHRC, Foreigners at home, 42. )$234.438 billion (2019 est. Both of his parents come from families urbanized during colonial times. Examples are Aden Duale, who became the Majority Leader of the National Assembly, Amina Mohammed Jibril, Cabinet Secretary for Foreign Affairs, and Adan Mohammed, Cabinet Secretary for Industrialization. The Ogaden War 1977-78 In Kenya, Mogadishu merely supported local armed groups to further its irredentist ambitions, but in Ethiopia, it launched a full-scale war. Both of them, as good Muslims, did not go out to bars, but instead played video games in the evening and enjoyed Somali music. 86. 25. The term ambiguous citizens seems to capture this situation better than the often-used expression second class citizens, as it carries the notion of uncertainty and the undetermined, as well as the emotional side of citizenship, going beyond a purely legal definition. [3] The first part of the paper gives a short historical overview of the socio-political position of the Somali population of Kenya, while the second part deals with three of the states citizen-making instruments crucial over the last decade: the census of 2009, the elections of 2013, and the move towards securitization since 2013, following terrorist attacks on Kenyan soil. 92. In 1993, a Somali parliamentarian narrated a justification he was given by the Principal Immigration officer after Somalis were barred from entering the passport-issuing office: A Somali, whether from Somalia or from Kenya, is a Somali because mtoto wa nyoka ni nyoka [The child of a snake is a snake].Footnote110 These processes of inclusion and exclusion can take place almost simultaneously. While she had never before mentioned Somalia, one day she told me that a friend of the family was stopping by more frequently in the last time and it seemed he just wanted to see her. )proven reserves: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.
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